Acta Historica Universitatis Klaipedensis

Between 1920 and 1939, Vilnius, the constitutional capital of Lithuania, was annexed by Poland, prompting the Lithuanian government and civil life to relocate to Kaunas, the temporary capital. Despite local tensions, both cities faced a shared geopolitical predicament in the 1930s, being between ‘Scylla and Charybdis’. Nazi Germany to the west and Bolshevik Russia to the east sought to revise the existing order, threatening Poland and the Baltic region respectively. Anticipating military attacks, both the Lithuanian and Polish governments began preparing in the early 1930s. Archival data reveal that the military, academic specialists and civilians underwent paramilitary training to address threats, such as gas and air attacks, and to develop crisis management strategies. Medical professionals played a critical role in devising measures to prevent and treat injuries from chemical warfare, leveraging medical expertise to mitigate potential losses. This article aims to examine and compare the medical and civilian preparedness for chemical attacks in Vilnius and Kaunas. Our research focuses on two objectives: analysing primary archival documents to uncover strategies by government bodies, military doctors, the Polish Red Cross, and related organisations; and reviewing the public press to understand societal perceptions of the looming military threat.

Significant changes in the social position of women in Europe, including Latvia, began in the 19th century, and peaked during the First World War. In Latvia, however, the momentum intensified during the War of Independence following the Great War, as women became increasingly involved in political, social and even military activities. They not only joined medical services and took on administrative roles, but also actively supported the Latvian army through their work with the Latvian Women’s Relief Corps (LWRC). Established in September 1919, the LWRC quickly became the most prominent and the largest women’s organisation in Latvia, earning recognition as the country’s first mass women’s association. This article discusses the founding and the activities of the LWRC during the Latvian War of Independence, including its contributions to supply, catering, sanitation, soldiers’ entertainment, social work, and more.

In the western borderlands of the former Russian Empire, which the German army had taken over at the beginning of the First World War (1915), the state institutions of the newly declared independent Lithuania began to emerge in 1918. One of them was the Lithuanian army, established at the very end of the year, which lacked everything at the time, but which was to engage the approaching Bolshevik Red Army as early as January 1919. In the first years, as the Lithuanian army was being built up, it interacted with German troops, some of whom were units retreating from the Eastern Front, and others were newly formed from volunteers who were recruited in Germany to fight against Bolshevism in the east. As the political order in Europe was changing in a way that was very unfavourable to Germany, all hopes that the Germans would be able to maintain their control in the east collapsed. The article examines how under these circumstances the German military leadership’s attitude towards the evolving Lithuanian army changed during the period of the Lithuanian Wars of Independence. Drawing on material in the Political Archives of the German Foreign Ministry and the German Military Archives, the article shows the different impact that two factors, the assessment of the capabilities of the Lithuanian army and the political attitudes of the Germans, had on the image of the Lithuanian armed forces.

The archaeological investigations of First World War sites that began in the United Kingdom at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries expanded the concept of Great War research, laid the foundations for the development of modern conflict archaeology, and shaped its theoretical and methodological approaches. In Lithuania, the sites of the First World War (1914–1918) and the Wars of Independence (1919–1920) have not attracted much interest among researchers, and there are almost no published studies to date. This article focuses on the legacy of the First World War and the Wars of Independence in Lithuania, for the first time providing an overview of the archaeological research carried out up to 2023 in trenches, battlefields, and sites of death and burial, analysing the context of the research and presenting its results. Drawing on the experience of the archaeology of the First World War in other countries, the author discusses the state of the research and its future prospects, and offers a definition of the archaeology of the First World War and the Wars of Independence in Lithuania.

Correlates of War (COW), an ongoing project initiated in the United States to monitor all the wars around the globe, covers the Estonian and Latvian wars of independence, and the war between Poland and Russia, but does not represent the Lithuanian War of Independence in detail. It only includes one episode of the war, the Polish-Lithuanian war. The article points out that this is partly correlated with the lack of a single term for these events in Lithuania. The author assesses the names of the war or wars of independence circulating in Lithuania, asking to what extent their differences have had an impact on the external (non)recognition of the War of Independence. After reviewing the paradoxical situation with war names circulating in Lithuania, the essay concludes with a reflection on what caused the establishment of the plural name in Lithuania. Despite this, the author argues that, from the perspective of external recognition, a singular name would better represent the nature of the processes that occurred in 1919 and 1920, and would contribute more to the consolidation of the national identity.

The war which covered the future territory of Lithuania in 1919 and 1920 after the end of the First World War has already been described several times by historians. The army loyal to the Lithuanian government in Kaunas took part in military action against three enemies: the Red Army, the Polish army and the West Russian Volunteer Army (a military formation of the Bermontians). When considering parallels, continuity and differences between the First World War and the three conflicts in Lithuania known as ‘the War of Independence’, historians have pointed out a crucial difference: the relatively small Lithuanian army was engaged in low-intensity military action. However, the question of the intensity of the combat has not specifically been addressed in research so far. This paper offers a new approach to analysing the intensity of the two-year war. For the first time, the authors have juxtaposed three data sets: analysing the number of days of combat, assessing the frequency and impact of the use of heavy weapons (artillery and/or aviation), and comparing it with data on the losses of the Lithuanian army’s manpower.

For many societies in East Central Europe and the Baltic region, the First World War did not truly end in 1918. The wartime conditions of that year set the stage for the Council of Lithuania to pass a resolution restoring Lithuania’s independence. Born amid conflict, and striving to establish its sovereignty, Lithuania began forming its own army in the autumn of 1918. However, building the Lithuanian armed forces required two years of intense engagement in regional conflicts. Initially, the army relied on voluntary enlistment, but this approach proved disappointing due to the low number of volunteers. As a result, the Lithuanian government implemented compulsory military service in early 1919. This article examines a widespread phenomenon that emerged during this period: the evasion of military service by Lithuanian men. On average, one in five men eligible for the draft failed to report to the draft office, and some conscripts who were enlisted subsequently deserted. The article analyses the causes of the evasion of military service, and explores specific instances of evasion in 1919 and 1920.